THE CATACOMBS OF ROME

After attending a lecture at University College Roosevelt Middelburg about the early Christians and their catacombs, I produced a summary in Dutch.
This is my translation in English.

 

¢SUMMARY

University College Roosevelt Middelburg

                   Lecture 3 ( 2013, May 22 Prof. Dr. L. V. RUTGERS)

“Inquiry about the history of the early Christians, buried in the catacombs of Rome.”

                                   Leen Moelker

1 Introduction and questions

The catacombs near Rome are important archeological and historical places. Notwithstanding they are partly damaged, in catacombs  many authentic items are preserved. Italian scientific inquiries have been focussed on the grave inscriptions and wall drawings.

2005 Prof. Rutgers (lecturing at the Utrecht University in Late ancient history) and his team started their inquiries into the history of the early Christians and especially into the catacombs being a necropolis. The most important question was, feeling close to them as Christians, how the early Christians lived. But also they were interested in how symbols worked and – after discovering new facts - to  what new questions does this lead?

2 The Catacombs

The city of Rome is situated on the ‘Alban Mountains.’ In ancient times volcanic eruptions threw material of tuff into the valley’s. After congelation this tuff remained soft when isolated from the air. As soon as brought in the air tuff is hardening and will be a harder stone .

The word ‘catacomb’ is derived from the Greek language and means ‘into the valley.’ After the lava had been congealed in the valley, the tuff surface was covered by plants and trees.

Those geological conditions were essential to the need of early Christians to create an own  grave yard in the underground near Rome. This happened actually by digging corridors in the  soft tuff. The reason why was the persecution to which the early Christians were exposed in the first century AC. They made long underground corridors and burying places into the walls by means of recesses or niches. Sometimes richer families used an ‘arcosolium,’ i. e. an underground dome to bury the whole family. Graves were closed by means of a terracotta or marble ‘door’ often with inscriptions and/or paintings. Scholars counted about 40.000 inscriptions with the name and age of the deceased. Often a symbol was added.

There are 50 different catacombs with over 500.000 graves. Especially the huge Saint Calixtus-catacomb has interesting material to scholars. Also the four Jewish catacombs are important sources to scholars.

Catacombs are – if no disturbed – capsules of time, containing many particulars about the early Christians. That’s why scholars are confident to find there a synchronous image of the past.

3  Scientific research

Last century the scientific inquiry had been focussed on the wall paintings in the catacombs. Most motives are derived from the Bible and particularly from the Old Testament. For example Jonah and the whale, Daniël, Job. Already in the first centuries AC themes derived from the New Testament appeared like ‘Lazarus’, ‘the good Shepherd’, ‘two bread and seven fishes’ , Peter and Paul with the dying Christ, often guided by a christogram. A special reason to choose those motives was, Roman people had to cope with death daily.

In Rome generally people reached 20-30 years of age. Of all born children 50% died before their 5^th year. Death was a daily experience. This was particularly the case under the early Christians because they were persecuted. They named their dying day their birthday, being the day of the beginning of their everlasting life.

It is interesting to see art work in catacombs is made to the honour of HIM who can decide over life and death. It is only HIM who can overcome the enemy death. Paintings, sculpture and inscriptions are reflecting the soul and characteristics of the deceased people.

From the archeological point of view, catacombs are extremely important. Not only the huge number of graves, but certainly also the perfect condition of the material – preserved during twenty centuries – make catacombs scientifically interesting places.

An interesting analysis of the wall paintings shows us the figure of Jesus, initially as a young man. Later ( 200-300 AC), Jesus became an older man with beard and often surrounded by people not mentioned in the canonical books. This change is connected to the appearance of the apocryphal books in the 3^rd century. Lacking of exact  information was supplied by fantasy. Because He now was guided by normal creatures, Jesus became holier and more divine. And by guiding Jesus also the disciples became more divine in wall paintings. Hence Peter and Paul became a role model to the Holy Father.

A christogram is a symbol to express people belong to Christ.  The Greek letters CHI (X) and RHO(P) are intertwined like this:   

  

We see this symbol uniquely on the graves of the early Christians. But also the Jews used a symbol in their catacombs: the menorah.

Except these symbols there are no differences between the graves. We find Jewish catacombs below Villa Torlonia and Vigna Randanini near Rome.

4  Newest Inquiries

Sculpture, wall paintings and inscriptions give us information about the early Christians indirectly. What can we do when we want to know more? How reliable is this information? The answer is that we can take analyses of the bones. Prof Rutgers and his team introduced in their archeological inquiries certain methods and technics taken from nature science.

By means of a ‘particle accelerator’ they applied radioactive carbon analyses on samples from bones. After all the team was able to settle the age of that person.

This type of inquiry focusses on physical-anthropological analysis of the bone material of the early Christians. The method is well known as the Stable Isotope Investigation which became popular after 1990.

Prof. Rutgers did his inquiries until now in the Saint Calixtus catacomb. He gathered many skeletons to measure the carbon: nitrogen relation. Why? During our life our protein structure is changing under influence of what we eat. After death this processes will be stopped and fixed.

And the lesson?

Rutgers c. s. could determine the nourishment ( and the carbon : nitrogen relation)of the early Christians. And knowing what people used to eat, connected with what we know about groups early Christians, it is possible to determine if people were living in the city, in the country, or at the sea shore. And if they were rich or poor.

                               Prof. Rutgers was very interested in the teeth of the persons/skeletons. Because teeth have the same characteristics as trees (annual rings)he could conclude about age and nourishment. The patron of the nourishment of different groups led him to more characteristics. For instance, fishermen generally were poor people but enthusiastic about the message of Jesus. They lived near rivers and seashores. Rich people preferred meat so it is possible to distinguish groups early Christians, certainly in combination with the characteristics of their graves  ( name or without name, execution in marble or terracotta, inscriptions).

Rich people usually made a sacrifice with meat. Poor people knew they might obtain the superfluity of meat after the sacrifice. Normally poor people tried to catch (for free) fishes. After Paul entered Rome many poor people followed his principles. The life of Jesus Christ became an ideal, hence we can position particularly early Christians around rivers (Tiber) sea shores (Mediterranean) .Prof. Rutgers emphasizes that many poor people in Rome honoured the Caesar-cult. Our scientific inquiry has also to focus on this group to compare the results with those of the Christians. 

The conclusion is that only grave art doesn’t inform us completely about the early Christians. Together with a carbon : nitrogen analysis we will know much more about them. But we are also informed by historical signs. On the ‘gravedoors’ from the third century and later we often see a diagram of a fish. The Greek word is ICHTUS. Christians still love this symbol because of its particular meaning.

 I  (Jesus)

X (CHrist)

O (TH) of God

Y (Yios) son

S (Sigma) saviour

 5  Conclusion

The scientific archeological inquiries in the catacombs near Rome, are accelerated by means of the STI, the Stable Isotope Inquiry.  Early Christian characteristics can  be derived from skeletons by determining the contents of carbon and nitrogen. Together with art work, inscriptions and  the form of the graves (arcosolium, niche), this information lead us to a better understanding of the early Christians. We get answers on questions like what particular identity the Christians had ( rich, poor, fisherman e.g.) and what their circumstances of living were.

Comparing the information with the no-Christians, and deepening the inquiries to get high standard statistical material – which is possible thanks to the perfect condition of the graves – archeologists try to describe and explain the life and the background of the early Christians.

The catacombs of Rome can tell us uniquely about certain aspects of the ancient Christian world.

Middelburg, 2014, March 22   

This summary is a translation of my Dutch version, published on internet cwstudent@googlegroups.com 

RIJKSMUSEUM AMSTERDAM refurbished

Recently, 2014 February I visited the Rijksmuseum Amsterdam to experience  the new presentation of the collection. I was rather impressed by the beauty of the building - now cleaned up - and by all that kind of artwork I love. Read my essay about the museum and may be you discover something to wonder about. I have to keep myself within bounds. Sorry. And you may give your comments either about the contents or the English idiom.

 

 

¢ESSAY

The RIJKSMUSEUM AMSTERDAM 
 National Museum of Art and History  

 

Leen Moelker

2013, April 13^th  the museum of art and history  Rijksmuseum Amsterdam has finished a huge renovation and restoration program which took a period of over ten years. This museum  is worth paying many visits. Recently I was walking around there and you can read here my most important experiences. Of course we will look in depth at an artwork. It will be a great pleasure to write about the history of art and architecture and especially about the painting “Night Watch”  made by the Dutch painter Rembrandt.

1  Short  history of  the museum   

1800, May 31^st the Dutch government started the Nationale Konst-Gallerij actually established in The Hague in ’Huis ten Bosch’, the former palace of the Dutch Royal family of Orange. Mr. Gogel, Secretary of State, ordered to join the total art collection of the royal family with a selection of objects detached from other collections in The Netherlands. The government aimed a historical-educational goal in order to bring in mind the Dutch supremacy in the seventeenth century.

1805 the collection had to move to another royal palace called ‘Buitenhof.’ Then the French came in and a substantial part of the art collection had been moved to Paris. 1806 Louis Napoleon was announced as the King of Holland seated in the Palace at the Dam at   Amsterdam. He promoted the French ideas about the organization of the study of art. 1808, September 15^th he settled the Nationale Konst-Gallerij in his Amsterdam residence, now called Koninklijk Museum.   Most of the art work had been removed from The Hague to Amsterdam except the royal property. The art property of the Amsterdam government had been removed from the palace to the ‘Prinsenhof’, another huge citypalace. However, several most famous paintings – Night Watch, Schuttersmaaltijd, Staalmeesters, - returned to Louis Napoleon in his Palace at the Dam, Amsterdam, without paying for.

Then Louis Napoleon ordered to buy many paintings to underline the power of the Dutch Republic since centuries. 1808, 63 paintings, 1809, 137 paintings particularly from the 17^th century. The King declared himself as the inheritor of the Dutch Republic‘s  famous past. However, 1810 the Kingdom of Holland was incorporated in the French State and King Louis Napoleon moved away.

1814 King William I took control over the Dutch country, Belgium and Luxembourg. He changed the name of the Amsterdam Koninklijk Museum into ‘s Rijks Museum. 1816 a new museum at The Hague was established, Koninklijk Kabinet van Schilderijen, now called ‘Mauritshuis.’

The collection of his royal family partly returned from Paris, then property of the Dutch State, and had been moved to the ‘Mauritshuis’ at The Hague. King William I was very involved in establishing art collections in The Netherlands, mostly in favour of the Mauritshuis at the costs of ‘s Rijks Museum. During his reign ‘s Rijks Museum has got 150  new art works and Mauritshuis 180 pieces.

1817 - 1885 the collection of ‘s Rijks Museum was showed in Amsterdam in the big house of the family Trip, dated from the seventeenth century. Except increasing by gifts from individuals like Leendert Drupper and Adriaan van der Hoop[1], the collection generally remained what it was. 

2  Rijksmuseum, the building

2.1  Introduction

From 1578 in The Netherlands the Catholic Church was not allowed to build churches and that’s why the church used so called shelter-churches. Directly after obtaining her rights back in 1851, the Catholic Church launched a huge building program. The architect Pierre J. H. Cuypers was involved in the construction of very many catholic churches.  It was a favour for the church too, Jhr. Mr. Victor de Stuers (1843-1916), a Roman Catholic high official, realised successfully the State’s concerning with erecting government buildings and their maintenance as well as with caring the monuments in The Netherlands.

1872 the Dutch Government decided to build a new Rijksmuseum particularly to commemorate the liberation from the French in 1813. It was ordered to show the Dutch most honourable heroes  of the 16^th  and 17^th century at the heart of the museum.  The architect would be the Roman- Catholic Pierre J.H. Cuypers. 1885 the collection of ‘s Rijks Museum found his final destination in the new building now called Rijksmuseum, Nationaal museum voor kunst en geschiedenis.

From the point of view of art history, it is necessary  to realise that in the nineteenth century nationalism in European countries became an important drive. As a matter of fact, many countries were  looking abroad to get colonies especially on the African continent. And an important country has to have a national style in art and architecture. It was a wide spread need to connect this with a classical orientation. Styles like neo-gothic, neo-renaissance or neo-classicism did revive old times of prosperity and happiness. Especially neo-gothic referred to the happy unity of the church, the state and the human beings in the Middle Ages.  

In Europe, generally, the government played a leading role in collecting art and establishing important buildings especially in the nineteenth century. For example the  House of Parliament Vienna (1879 Greek-hellenistic),the  Opera House Garnier Paris ( 1875 mixed neo-style), the  National Gallery London (1837 neo-classical) are connected with the self-esteem and self-presentation of a country.

In The Netherlands from 1581 the cities, citizens and local authorities decided about when, where and what building was needed. The Palace at the Dam (1650), Amsterdam is one of the many examples. But in 1873 the Dutch State government was convinced art and architecture could help to emphasize the need for union of the Dutch people, hence they ordered a new museum.    

2.2  Pierre J. H. Cuypers, the architect     

Petrus Josephus Hubertus Cuypers was born 1827, May 16^th and studied architecture in Antwerp under E.E. Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879).[2] From him he learned to apply the gothic style. “ Every form which is not emphasised by the construction, must be avoided.” Thus an ornamental element can only clear up the construction.[3]           

1906 he was awarded with the degree of Doctor Honoris Causa from Delft University. In the nineteenth century in the field of art and architecture the concept of Gesamtkunstwerk was very popular and Cuypers applied this in his architecture  e.g.  in the Central Station Amsterdam and Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. That meant his ongoing concern with both decoration and architecture of the construction, churches and secular buildings.

Cuypers influenced many architects and artists like H.P. Berlage (Beurs van Berlage Amsterdam) and Michiel de Klerk (Museum ‘t Schip). Also during his tutorship of the Amsterdam School for Arts and Crafts, Cuypers has provided for many followers.

Cuypers married twice. His first wife and daughter died cause to tuberculosis. His second wife, Antoinette Alberdingk Tijm was a sister of the Amsterdam art- professor Karel Alberdingk Tijm with whom Cuypers developed a Roman Catholic original gothic style in church building.

1921, March 3^rd  Cuypers died in his hometown Roermond, 93 years old.

2.3  Architecture  and decoration of the new Rijksmuseum

1872 a commission was ordered to prepare for a new Rijksmuseum by means of a contest. Cuypers had made two concepts, one neo-renaissance model and a gothic model. He won the contest with the neo-renaissance model. However, Cuypers and his friend Victor de Stuers, encouraged the gothic style and that’s why Cuypers changed the plan partly, in order to make a gothic cathedral-like building of 135 x 84 meters. The main entrance, originally planned in Dutch Renaissance Style, has got his present stained glass gothic windows. They show scenes about the art of painting, construction and sculpture making.  Finally Cuypers introduced different styles in his museum to emphasize the long lasting Dutch  national history.[4] For instance spectators can discover:

The Roman Style in the arched frieze just beneath the cornice;

The Gothic Style can easily be observed from outside in the Gothic windows with coloured glazes; and  in the arched roofs emphasizing the verticality of the building; and by compound piers to support the huge upper parts; and  in many texts on the walls regularly written  in Gothic characters within a frame of (barbed) quatrefoil; and open pinnacles with sculptures; a particular addition in the Gothic Style is a complex of two towers with entrance which reminds us the Westside of most Gothic cathedrals like Notre Dame and Saint Denis, Paris and Chartres.

The Renaissance Style is distinguished  in different materials like natural stone and coloured brick; by columns with capitals in the different orders like the Corinthian order; pediments with reliefs within the triangle;   

In the nineteenth century iron constructions were very popular and we see this back in the Library.

Cuypers followed the rule that the outside walls must have a relationship with the inner departments by means of architecture and decoration. For instance, the artwork of the 17^th century in the so called Night Watch Room and Honourable Gallery is connected outside to sculpture portraits of Dutch painters.[5]  The museum would become a Gesamtkunstwerk  by the cooperation between history and the Belle Artes.  To remind some milestones in history, the architect settled at the outside walls – observable from the Hobbemakade – four big tableaus in ceramic and carved stone.

1.      Establishing the church St Servaas (570) -to commemorate the power of Christianity;

2.      Charles de Great laying the first stone for his palace at Nijmegen (800)- civilisation;

3.      Bishop Bernulpus buried at Utrecht (1054)- Civilisation and art loving;

4.      Cistercians at the abbey of Aduard (1200)- arts and literature improved by monks (Fig.1).

It is hardly possible to name the uncountable number of decorations, inside and outside. Cuypers didn’t forget himself, Victor de Stuers and his brother-in-law J. A. Alberdingk Tijm, as models for a portrait at the outside wall of Rijksmuseum. However, the Dutch king William III never paid a visit ‘dans ce monastère.’

The very critical receipt of that Roman Catholic building in 1885, July 13^th , became even stronger. And that’s why Mr Pit, conservator, suggested  in 1906 to paint out the inside decoration in white. In 1959 this happened actually.[6]  

2004 the restoration commission decided to restore all original decorations, to clean up invisible sculptures and to renovate (partly) disappeared elements like the floor of mosaic in the Entrance Hall. And this happened, so we can admire now the museum in his original appearance.

                

Fig. 1 Tableau at the outside wall (Hobbemakade) “Kunst en letteren door de geestelijke orden bevorderd XXXX De Cisterciënzers in de abdij Aduard, omstreeks 1200”.  Foto: Amsterdamsegrachtenhuizen.info (7)

3. The Collection

The actual presentation of some art works out of 1.000.000 pieces depends on the importance of the work and temporary focus. The new Rijksmuseum is showing us now combined art history and the national history of The Netherlands. For instance, next to paintings of Michiel de Ruyter – important sea-captain leader in the 17^th century English Wars – we admired different objects De Ruyter used personally like wallet, sword and silver chains.

To make a choice I would like to tell something about the Night Watch (Rembrandt Harmensz. Van Rijn 1606-1669), Asparagus (Adriaen S. Coorte 1665 – after 1707 ) and L’homme carrée  (De vierkante man),Karel Appel (1921 – 2006).

  

 

  

3.1  The Night Watch

No doubt, the Night Watch is the most beautiful, most impressive painting in history ever. Painted in claire-obscure, it is showing a natural and real life event.[8] Hence, this painting of Rembrandt has the status of a holy object.  It has its own room like an apsis in a gothic cathedral. People heading for the Night Watch will be first  informed in the Entrance Hall about the splendid level of the famous painters, architects and sculpture makers by watching the Gothic windows. Then they walk through the Honourable Gallery with paintings of Dutch 17^th century painters like Frans Hals, Jan  Asselijn, Vermeer, Van Ruysdael. Finally they reach the Night Watch Room.

To remember me some particulars I now give some details of the Night Watch. But first the painting itself.

Fig.2 Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn, De schutters van wijk II onder leiding van kapitein Frans Banninck Cocq, 1642, oilpainting on canvas, 379,5 x 453,5 cm , Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. Photograph: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

We know the name of the 18 kloveniers except the young girl’s name. Their names are painted on a shield right above Banninck Coq. The ‘police’ carries muskets, lances in rest and halberds. A standard-bearer holds up their standard. The scene is full of action. Behind Banninck Coq and captain Willem van Ruytenburch van Vlaerdingen a musketeer is ‘attacking the enemy.’ The lance-in rest of Banninck Coq is three-dimensionally painted!! Next to the standard-bearer and a helmet person we see Rembrandt himself, only with one eye.

1975 a confused man did attack the Night Watch with a knife. Just above the dog you can see the repaired curves.

Notice the Night Watch originally measured 5 x 4 meter. In the year 1715 it was transferred from the Kloveniersdoelen[9] to the  Palace at the Dam, Amsterdam. Because  the new place at the Palace at the Dam, Amsterdam – between two doors – was too small for the Night Watch, they cut the four sides of the painting. How do we know that? Frans Banninck Coq was very proud of the painting with himself in the centre and ordered to make a smaller one for his own house. This artwork is displayed next to the big Night Watch  in order to allow people to observe and to compare the two paintings.

3.2  The Asparagus

Fig. 3 Adriaen  S. Coorte, Still-life with Asparagus,1697, paper on wood,  20 x 20,5 cm , Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. Photograph: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam.

Adriaen S. Coorte painted small still-life paintings. He lived in Middelburg and Amsterdam in the 17^th century. His paintings carry two main motives: vanitas and fruit/vegetables. Probably his choice for these motives was market driven because the rich people preferably ordered huge portraits and ‘schutterstukken’  like the Night Watch. His ’market’ was in particular the fortunate people of  a small town, Middelburg far from Amsterdam. Many citizens there came from Antwerp after the Duke of Alva sent them as non-Catholics away (1585).  The Rijksmuseum is showing four still-lives of Coorte including The Asparagus. There are more paintings of this artist  with the same motive. Obviously the painter would like to say that our imagination can make ordinary things very particular. Let us admire what is qualified as insignificant. Indeed, this small piece of artwork, displayed somewhere in a huge museum, let us realise artists then started exploring their feelings in their work, instead of showing unattainable dreams.  Coorte painted on paper on wood and he was very successful in showing realism. There are 66 paintings registered. 2009 Sotheby discovered two unknown still-lives and possibly there are still others.

Keep in mind the Rijksmuseum is telling us the (art) history of The Netherlands with a special focus on the 17^th century. Rembrandt and Coorte are representatives of that period. Let us look forward to the 20^th century and see if  making famous artwork has been continued in The Netherlands.

3.3   L’homme carrée (The Square man)

Rijksmuseum will pay more attention to the modern Dutch (art) history  because of its national and international importance. On the lowest level of the museum the art of the Middle Ages is emphasized,  the highest level is focussed on modern art and artists. One painting there of Karel Appel will represent a period of anti-intellectualism in art history.

Karel Appel (1926-2006) is a representative of COBRA, an international artists movement after World War II. It is worth noticing in terms of art history, COBRA artists followed independently from the surrealism and  the American abstract- expressionism, her own development in artwork expression.

“The square is not a subconscious form; it is a creation of intuitive reason”  (Malevich)[10]

 

Karel Appel particularly had a strong drive to paint uninhibited. Sense-organs must deliver the input for an artwork, hence, sometimes he threw the paint on the canvas from a distance. 1951 he painted The Square man which he kept in his own possession (Fig.4). 2008 it has been sold by the Karel Appel Foundation to the Rijksmuseum.

Fig.4 Karel Appel, De Vierkante Man,1951, oil painting on canvas, 120,5 x 118 cm, Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. Photograph: Leen Moelker. [11]

We see a male figure in frontal position. His head is much too big and pressed down in a form like an egg. High pressure make the substance liquid. That’s why his body is transparent so we can observe backbones and the male genital organs. The thick contours emphasize the mass and the boundaries of the figure. This strong and massive man represent power and fertility.

 The pressure from the outside asks constantly for a counter power from the inside. Appel certainly is telling us about his own struggle  with the old conventions and limits. He tried to break through the limits by exposing new ways in art making.

Karel Appel’s keywords were “Ik rotzooi maar wat an,” but L’homme carrée  give us evidence that his work is basically made with intelligence.    

The square shape has been studied for millennia. Most artists connect this form to a special meaning like stability and perfection.[12] In mathematics the square is also a particular shape of a rectangle, quadrilateral, parallelogram and a rhombus. 

Let me try to summarize and to give my private opinion. L’homme carrée is telling the story of all human beings. People have always to cope with high pressure from their outside world. Their available weapons are both human physical power and mental energy. Karel Appel is showing us these two forces – pressure and counter pressure – in an intertwining relation. He emphasizes in general our need for space, where others try to reduce our playing field simultaneously.    

4  Conclusion

 The ‘new’ Rijksmuseum  is showing us at a high level art, architecture and history. The overwhelming number of high quality art and the first class  accessibility at the level of the art work make observing art a great pleasure.  Arrange a trip and pay the Rijksmuseum a visit.  No doubt this place offers a great opportunity to all people, to learn about the old and the new world. 

 

Fig.5 Personification of the Beauty, the True and the Good, ceramic, wall decoration Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam. Foto: Rijksmuseum.

Artworks like the Night Watch, Asparagus and L’homme carrée  give us together a birth eye view on (art) history in The Netherlands. But above all they lead us to ourselves and they let us explore the Good, recognise the True and experience the Beauty (Fig.5). 

Middelburg, 2014, February 18

 

---

[1] To honour these friends of Rijksmuseum, their gifts are still displayed in a room named after them.

[2] Well known as the architect of the gothic tower of the Notre Dame at Paris and a gothic inspired architect.

[3] Koen Kleijn, Jos Smit, Claudia Thunnissen, Nederlandse Bouwkunst, een geschiedenis van tien eeuwen, 2^e herz. druk (Alphen a. d. Rijn 1997)162-169.

[4] Gijs van der Ham, 200 jaar Rijksmuseum, Geschiedenis van een nationaal symbool (Amsterdam 2000)140,141.

[5] For example we see at the outside a portrait of the famous Amsterdam poet Vondel, and inside the Library. Outside a wall sculpture of Rembrandt making the Night Watch, inside the painting the Night Watch .

[6] Van der Ham, 200 jaar Rijksmuseum 243.

[7] http://www.amsterdamsegrachtenhuizen.info/musea/rijks/rm01l/rm01tt4/

[8] What we see is the self-presentation of the ‘kloveniers’ with Banninck Kock as a Cornet. The more the kolveniers paid the more prominence in the painting. Kloveniers were citizens whose task it was to keep the city safe from fire and criminals. Their riffle was called ‘kolvenier’  after a French term, couleuvrine. Mostly wealthy volunteers.

[9] Kloveniersdoelen  is a building where kloveniers were exercising their shooting abilities and had their meetings .  

[10] Albert Kostenich, red., Matisse tot Malevich, pioniers van de moderne kunst uit de Hermitage(Amsterdam 2010) 237.

[11] With special permission of Pictoright Amsterdam.  All rights reserved by Pictoright Amsterdam. 

[12] Remember  Malevich: Black Square; Red Square; White Square. The square-based architecture of the Byzantyns, Filarete and Brunelleschi